Online Glossary of Consultation & Engagement Terms

Guide to Consultation & Public Engagement Terms

Compiled by Martin Woodrow

Introduction A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Introduction

Consultation, and the wider concept of public engagement, is bedeviled by widespread confusion of terminology; in particular where a generally known term has a specialised meaning in relation to consultation. This in turn adds to the uncertainty of expectations, which deters many organisations and decision-makers from a wholehearted commitment to consultation.Indeed, the whole subject of consultation was given an energetic and acerbic airing by Matthew Parris in The Times on 26th February 2005, when he declared “A whole cartload of fatuous buzz-phraseology is now dragged through the news media….”This Guide is an attempt to assist practitioners and others by clarifying  many of the terms in common use in both the public and private sectors and also in the voluntary and community (or Third) sector.We will be pleased to hear of any other terms that users feel should be included. Comments on the definitions themselves are also welcome – Please email michelle@consultationinstitute.org

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Action Research A dialogue method for intentional learning from experience, originally formulated by social psychologist Kurt Lewin. It is characterised by intervention in real world systems followed by close scrutiny of the effects. The action research cycle is: Data Collection > Evaluation > Action > Critical Reflection > Data Collection > Evaluation…Active Citizenship1. Encouraging people to play, or where a citizen does play, a more responsible and active part in public life, strengthening the commitment to a shared social and cultural community.Notes:

  • Part of the core national education curriculum in England and Wales since 2002, including lessons on rights, responsibilities, cultural diversity, political participation and the notions of community and volunteering
  • This term has a particular resonance in relation to public consultation for it implies a duty to take an interest in key issues and to participate in consultation programmes
2. Citizens taking opportunities to become actively involved in defining and tackling the problems of their communities and improving their quality of life. One of the three key elements of civil renewal.Active CommunitiesCommunities in which citizens are empowered to lead self determined fulfilled lives, and in which everyone regardless of age, race or social background has a sense of belonging and a stake in society.Analysis SoftwareSee Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)Appreciative Inquiry1. A dialogue method for creating a vision, and planning to achieve it, through understanding and appreciating the past as a basis for imagining the future.It is characterized by its:
  • abandonment of “problem talk”
  • focus on narrative exploration
  • emphasis on positive explorations of the past
  • the collaborative construction of alternative futures
  • the reconstruction of identities and relationships.
2. Appreciative Inquiry is about the co-evolutionary search for the best in people, their organizations, and the relevant world around them. In its broadest focus, it involves systematic discovery of what gives “life” to a living system when it is most alive, most effective, and most constructively capable in economic, ecological, and human terms.Arts-Based Civic DialogueIn arts-based civic dialogue, the artistic process and/or art/humanities presentation provides a key focus or catalyst for public dialogue on a civic issue. Opportunities for dialogue are embedded in or connected to the arts experience. Arts-based civic dialogue may draw upon any of the arts and humanities disciplines and the spectrum of community-based, experimental, mainstream, popular, and other art forms. It may be undertaken by individual artists and artist companies, community-based arts and cultural organizations, and major cultural institutions, utilizing a wide range of artistic practice and dialogic methods. See also TheatreAsynchronous Citizen EngagementAn online dialogue that occurs over a preset period of time but which does not require simultaneous contribution by the participants. See also Synchronous CEAuditSee Consultation Audit

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Back CheckingA quality control process by which the eligibility of market research participants is checked after they have taken part in a study, usually by re-contacting a proportion of them.BackcastingA dialogue method of analysing alternative futures. Its major distinguishing characteristic is a concern with how desirable futures can be attained. It involves working backwards from a desired future end-point or set of goals to the present to determine the physical feasibility of that particular future and the policy measures required to reach that end point. Backcasting is similar to visioning, however backcasts are not intended to reveal what the future will be, but rather to weigh up a number of possible futures, and decide the implications and preferable options, then to map out steps along the way.Baseline StudyA process to identify all relevant consultation and/or public engagement exercises conducted wholly or partly in the name of the organisation, and to gather such information as will assist in managing such activities to meet agreed standards and stakeholder expectationsBenchmarkingA process of information gathering and data normalisation to enable meaningful comparisons between organisations, processes or other activities.Note: Consultation Benchmarking is found in two forms

  • Process benchmarking – which is a comparison of the cross-related processes used by different organisations
  • Data benchmarking – which is a comparison of the consultation output obtained from a range of sufficiently comparable consultation exercises
Best PracticeProcesses or activities regarded by experienced practitioners as representing a high level of performance, justifying commendation and emulation.BiasAn intentional or unintentional predilection towards influencing the outcome of a consultation by the context, statements made or the formulation of the questions asked.Note: In the statistical sense Bias is a term which refers to how far the average statistic lies from the parameter it is estimating, that is, the error which arises when estimating a quantity. Errors from chance will cancel each other out in the long run, those from bias will not.Bilateral MeetingsThese are formal meetings usually between government and a stakeholder organization often used to identify, define or clarify issues and increase knowledge base on the issues. This category is part of a public involvement plan or strategy and excludes intermittent business meetings with stakeholders.Black & Minority Ethnic groups (BME)Black and Minority Ethnic Groups. Often a focus for efforts in accessing the ‘Hard-to-Reach’.BlogA blog is a website in which journal entries are posted on a regular basis and displayed in reverse chronological order. They can be done by an individual or can be collaborative. The term blog is a shortened form of weblog or web log. Often blogs focus on a particular “area of interest” and can be a potent form of consultation when, for example, the blogger uses an entry or entries to solicit views and opinions about a policy or decision etc.Note: In Local Government a councillor can use a blog to offer constituents an opportunity to express views on a forthcoming issue.Ditto Members of Parliament etc.Bohm DialogueCreated by a physicist, David Bohm, this is focused on discussing individual internal dynamics – assumptions, motivations, beliefs etc – not to elimnate them from happening but for them to surface in the conversation in a way that furthers the dialogue. Borda preferendumSee Modified Borda CountBrainstormingTechnique designed to promote creative and original thinking. A topic is raised for discussion and people call out any thoughts that come to mind. These are recorded via a whiteboard or overhead projector for all to see to stimulate further thought; they can then be categorised and prioritised for further action.See also Graffiti WallBreakthroughsShifts of “mind and heart” that occur when human beings are engaged in open-ended dialogue and inquiry.Brief                      Information given to a consultor outlining the client’s reasons for requiring research and its significant parameters, including key research questions, timing and cost requirements. This may be captured in a single briefing document and/or will emerge in the course of a briefing meeting.

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Capacity BuildingThe development of skills, infrastructure and capabilities so as to improve an organisation’s ability to fulfill its own role and mission.Note:

  • The term is particularly used in the context of community or voluntary bodies representing disadvantaged or hard-to-reach groups and where consultors are increasingly committed to help such groups engage effectively in consultation and related processes
CAPISee Computer Assisted Personal InterviewingCAQDASSee Computer Assisted Qualitative Data AnalysisChange-led ConsultationWhere the main objective is to facilitate major change by giving stakeholders opportunities to engage with consultors on key aspects of proposed changes.CharetteA meeting to resolve a problem or issue within a specific time limit. It requires that the facilitator possess extensive knowledge of group dynamics and processes and the ability to encourage all members of the group to participate. Charettes last a minimum of two hours though many are day-long events. Because of the time limit, people are challenged to address the issue quickly, openly and honestly and to seek solutions by way of consensus.ChatSee e-Discussion Forum and VIP ChatCirclesSee District Circles, also Samoan CirclesCitizen Advisory CommitteesMany government agencies use these committees to help with decision-making on a variety of issues (transportation, education, policing, housing, art, etc.). In principle these committees are a good idea but historically, in some communities, they have been ineffective for various reasons (such as limits on the issues they can address; politically appointed membership not truly representative of a community; set up to rubber stamp decisions already made; heavy influence from corporate representatives; limited input from citizens who are not members of the committee). Government agencies could work with communities to redesign advisory committees so that the community gets to appoint the members, the committee itself gets to decide which issues it will address, and how to get broader community input before making final decisions.Citizen EngagementSee Engagement also Public Engagement also Asynchronous Public EngagementCitizen UserDescribes a member of the public when accessing Government services over the internet.Citizen Relationship ManagementSee Customer Relationship ManagementCitizens’ JuryA dialogue method whereby a small group of citizens (chosen on a representative basis to reflect the local population) is brought together to consider a particular issue. They receive evidence from expert witnesses and can cross-examine them. A report is then drawn up setting out the views of the jury (including any differences of opinion).Also called
Deliberative Councils (US)
Consensus Conferences (Denmark/Scandinavia)
Planning Cells (Germany)Citizens’ PanelA dialogue method whereby a randomly selected, representational number of persons agree to be consulted on a regular basis on a range of local issues and services.See also Residents Panel and ePanelsNotes:
  • Panel research is an established variant of quantitative survey techniques, and consultors can establish a variety of such panels to improve access to particular groups eg the Business community, young people, senior citizens etc
  • Many local authorities in the UK have established panels of 1,000-2,000 citizens, many of which have provision for systematic retirements and replenishments in order to keep their panel representative and fresh
Citizens’ SummitsCitizens’ Summits are deliberative meetings involving large numbers of people (typically between 500-5000) and using communication technology to facilitate discussions.The technology, which includes electronic voting, text messages, and online surveys, makes it possible to engage large numbers of people in the same place, at the same time.CitizenshipSee Active CitizenshipCitizenship ManagementOne of the six functionality categories identified in CRM in the Public Sector 1 and used to describe interactions between Government and its agencies and members of the public in their capacity as citizens rather than a service uses.See “CRM in the Public Sector” Hewson Group 2003Cleaning (or Cleansing)Removal of incomplete or obviously erroneous data which would otherwise unduly influence the result of a consultation.Closed QuestionsThese are questions where the answer you can give is limited to one option, such as choosing yes or noCode of PracticeA set of rules according to which people in a particular profession, or performing a particular task, are expected to behave. In consultation it normally refers to the BERR document. This revised (applied from Nov. 2008) Code sets out the approach, in the form of 7 criteria, that the Government will take when it has decided to run a formal, written, public consultation exercise. To see the full code go to the web address www.berr.gov.uk/files/file47158.pdf.Notes:
  • Applies to all UK public consultation by government departments and agencies including consultations on EU Directives
  • The Code does not have legal force and cannot prevail over statutory or mandatory requirements. Ministers retain their existing discretion not to conduct formal consultation exercises under the terms of the Code.
  • Public Sector organisations are encouraged to sign up to the code. Go to the web www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/bre/consultation-guidance/page44420.html for further information
CodingA process of turning text responses into a structured framework, so that they can be counted, and easily seen as meaningful feedback.Notes:
  • Also refers to entering the answer to survey questions into a computer in abbreviated form. E.g. 1 for male, 2 for female
Collaboration AgreementAn agreement whereby two or more groups undertake to work together on a consultation project. Although the groups may share the responsibility and the cost, the work is often carried by only one group on behalf of both or all. This agreement may by a formal one, particularly if the groups are not normally associated.Collage techniqueA projective or enabling technique whereby research participants create rough collages from magazines or other visual material to represent something relevant to the research – often a brand, or an activity. This enforced move away from the verbal helps to access intuitive knowledge and may allow access to non-verbal aspects of the topic that would otherwise remain unarticulated and thus open them up to discussionComment & Complaints CardsComplaint cards are usually displayed at the point of service delivery. Can be used to refine service delivery. Comments might also be received via telephone or a website.Comments BoxSimilar to Comments Tree below, but the comments and ideas are posted into a ballot box. Good technique suited to all events where anonymous comment is required and where we do not want consultees to read each other’s comments.Comments TreePre printed schematic or photographic tree. Ideas and
comments are written onto post-it notes/leaves and stuck onto the tree. Very good technique suited to all events where anonymous feedback is required and where people
may need to be encouraged to leave ideas and comments.Commitments RegisterA published list of follow-up actions from a public meeting, focus group, consultation etc.Communities of Interest
  1. Groups of people sharing similar interests and who generate most of their discussion from within their group. In consultation terms each group or community would normally hold a dialogue within a set of house rules and assisted by a facilitator.
  2. Communities of interest are groups of people who share an identity – for example Afro-Caribbean people; or who share an experience – for example people with a particular disability.
Communities of PlacePeople who live in a particular locality and all their different relationships and interests.Communities of PracticeDistributed groups of people who share a common concern. Often informal groups of experts who complement other structures by promoting collaboration and information exchange.Community
  1. People living in a defined geographical area, or who share similar interests and concerns.
  2. A community is a specific group of people who all hold a something in common. Community has tended to be associated with two key aspects: firstly people who share locality or geographical place; secondly people who are communities of interest.
Community AppraisalThis involves a group of people from a community working together. The group works to build a description of the area taking into account all factors e.g. social, environment and economic issues. This is then used to inform decision-making.
  • Also known as Community Profiling.
  • Similar to Community Audit, but there are differences of emphasis.
Community AuditThis is the use of a combination of techniques to gather comprehensive information from local people about an area to help identify local priorities and inform the consultation process. It allows a complete picture of the area to be built up because of the high level of community involvement.Although they have the potential to give a full and realistic picture of an area, community audits can also be used to audit a particular issue. For example, a community health audit or community safety audits.
  • Known as Community Asset Inventory in US
  • See also Community Mapping
Community Empowerment NetworkCommunity Empowerment Networks are being established as a link between the community and voluntary sectors and the Local Strategic Partnership in each of the 88 most deprived local authority areas in England. This is to help community and voluntary sector groups, particularly those that are marginalized, to get more involved in decisions concerning how public services are delivered in their area. They will be set up by a ‘lead organisation’ from within the sector using funding from the Neighbourhood Renewal Unit’s (www.neighbourhood.gov.uk) Community Empowerment Fund.Community Engagement
  1. The process of working collaboratively with and through groups of people affiliated by geographic proximity, special interest, or similar situations to address issues affecting the well being of those people.
  2. In the context of civil renewal, community engagement is the term for processes which help to build active and empowered communities. Its characteristics include enabling people to understand and exercise their powers and responsibilities as citizens, empowering them to organise through groups to work for their common good, and requiring public bodies to involve citizens in influencing and carrying out public services.
Community IndicatorsTools that are intended to measure local trends by listening to the opinions of local peopleNote:
  • For more information see Participation Works, produced by the New Economics Foundation
Community InventoryA process for discovering what kinds of skills, abilities, and experiences individuals, associations and community businesses possess that could be translated into community building (e.g., economic activity and increased economic stability).Community Issues GroupsA combination of the focus group and citizen jury. The purpose is to capture the energy, reach and cost-effectiveness of a focus group, combined with the potential depth of the jury. CIGs consist of 8-12 people who meet for roughly 2-2½ hours on several occasions to discuss designated issues in depth. Each meeting is designed to build on discussions of the previous session.Community KittiesSee Participatory BudgetingCommunity Led PlansA step-by-step structured process of creating a vision for a community or neighbourhood. The vision covers social, economic, environmental and cultural well-being of the community and all those who live and work there.Community MappingAn approach to the question what do you value about the place where you live? People are asked to mark on a map what it is they value about their area and things they are worried about. The resulting map is placed somewhere in the public eye to be added to or amended as appropriate. It helps raise public awareness of many local issues.Community PanelAn alternative name for a Citizens Panel.
  • Other institutions and public service processes use the term for different purposes e.g. Youth Offending machinery
Community Participation or InvolvementParticipation in any of three core activities civic participation, informal volunteering and formal volunteering) (2001 Home Office Citizenship survey)Community ProfilingSee Community AppraisalCommunity VisioningSee VisioningCommunity Voices NetworkA Scottish national network
(www.community-voices.org.uk) for local people involved in the regeneration of their communities.Community x-changeAn informal label for a variety of participatory action research practices that promote alternative principles of participation (often called “public engagement”) from those that currently dominate. It contains elements of the citizens’ jury and DIY citizens’ jury techniques, but avoids legal language or symbolism. First coined by community development worker and PEALS Research Centre academic Dr Jasber Singh in 2006, to describe a shift from naive attempts at two-way engagement such as the 2005 UK Nanojury (www.nanojury.org) The term symbolises attempts to share ownership of the participation process with the community members who became involved in it.CompactThe Compact was published in 1998. It is a framework for partnership between Government and the voluntary and community sector, for mutual advantage. An important principle in the Compact is the independence of the sector and its right to campaign. The Compact is supported by five Codes of Good Practice in which Government and the sector commit to particular actions. One of these is the Consultation Code. There are also Local Compact Guidelines to inform partnership working between voluntary & community sector organisations and local bodies such as local authorities, primary care trusts and local learning and skills councils.Computer Assisted Personal InterviewingEssentially means that the interview is conducted on a computer rather than using a paper questionnaire. It will involve direct or indirect interaction with an interviewer.Computer Assisted Qualitative Data AnalysisComputer programs designed to make the analysis of data collected during qualitative research easier, more efficient, and more effective. Open-ended survey questions, focus group transcriptions, and interview notes are a few of the data forms they can deal with.Concept boardA form of stimulus material, comprising visual and/or verbal representation of an idea for a product or service, often outlining its attributes and benefits and used to present this idea to participants in research. These are usually mounted on large boards so a group of people can easily see them. Such concept boards may be quite polished and resemble advertisements, or they may be very rough and ‘unfinished’ConferencesSee Consensus Conference also Seminars and Conferences also Stakeholder ConferenceConfidence IntervalA confidence interval gives an estimated range of values which is likely to include an unknown population parameter, the estimated range being calculated from a given set of sample data.Confidence LevelThe level of confidence that a consultor has that the statistical result the consultation has achieved is correct.ConflictAn ongoing situation that is based on deepseated differences of values, ideologies, and goals. The differences are hard to resolve because they reflect the core values of the disputants. The parties may not be influenced by facts and may not want to examine tradeoff options.Conflict InterviewsA technique by which people with differing behaviours and/or attitudes are recruited into a pair, triad or group discussion. The interviewing process is used to explore and dramatise the differences between these positions. Although a highly effective research approach, it requires sensitive handling by the facilitatorConflict ResolutionDialogue methods that enable participants to by-pass personal differences and to open up to possibilities. It involves a powerful shift from adversaries to co-operative partners. In this shift each person benefits.Consensus
  1. A mutually acceptable agreement that integrates the interests of all concerned parties. A number of dialogue methods seek to arrange consensus views by stimulating stakeholder discussions and focusing on area of agreement
  2. General or widespread agreement. Tends to be used to describe an outcome that ‘everyone can live with’, as well as unequivocal agreement. A winwin solution.
Consensus Conference
  1. A panel of ordinary citizens who question expert witnesses on a particular topic. Their recommendations are then circulated to key decision-makers and the media.
  2. A temporary group of 12-18 citizens selected from a volunteer pool to be demographically representative, who deliberate on a public issue, usually technology-related. Overseen by a committee of diverse partisan authorities, they study briefing materials, cross-examine experts in public forums, and craft consensus findings and recommendations, which are delivered to concerned public officials at a public press conference.
Consensus DemocracyConsensus democracy reformulates how local democracy operates in the 21st Century. The basic principles of consensus democracy recognize the need for new institutional ways that allow all citizens to have access to direct control of the decision making process.Consensus VotingThe de Borda Institute (www.deborda.org), and OurKingdom (www.opendemocracy.net/ourkingdom/) are collaborators in online consensus decision making using the Modified Borda Count; a system of democratic voting designed to facilitate the identification of a consensus, if and when one exists. By posing problems as open rather than closed questions, it allows all participants to bring their preferred solutions to the table; next, after an open multi-optional debate, it asks everyone to cast their preferences on (one, some or hopefully) all the options listed; and then it identifies that option which gains the highest average.Consultation
  1. The dynamic process of dialogue between individuals or groups, based upon a genuine exchange of views and, with the objective of influencing decisions, policies or programmes of action.
Consultation AnalysisThe examination and evaluation of information gathered in the course of a consultation exercise, and the search for patterns or insights about the subject-matter leading to the formulation of conclusions.Consultation AuditA systematic review of consultation policies and practices – either for an individual consultation exercise or for a programme of consultations. This will be done, preferably, by someone outside the consultation processConsultation CalendarA publication or web page that lists by date consultations, past, present and planned in a single listing.
See also Consultation DiaryConsultation CharterA document published by The Consultation Institute and intended to act as a Statement of Best Practice principles to be followed by all those involved in the consultation process.Consultation Co-ordinatorAn official or member of staff with responsibility for ensuring that consultation exercises initiated or undertaken by different departments or agencies, are co-ordinated so as to optimise the use of resources and minimise effort and inconvenience for stakeholders.Note:
  • The Gershon Report makes a strong case for more co-ordinated consultation
  • The Institute has prepared a Model Job Description for a Consultation Co-ordinator
Consultation CultureValues and behaviour that reflect considerable emphasis on consultation as a routine method of taking decisions in an organisation.Consultation DiarySimilar to a Consultation Calendar but usually only covers current and future consultations.Consultation DirectoryA register of forthcoming, current or past consultation exercises relevant to a particular organisation or group of organisations.
See also Consultation Calendar and Consultation DiaryNote:
  • Many public bodies publish such a Directory on their websites, and are now able to use sophisticated IT tools from Companies such as BMG Research, Dialogue by Design, iNovem, Responsian, CommunityPeople etc
Consultation ExerciseA single consultation project focused on a defined objective and frequently part of an overall consultation programmeNotes:
  • Permanent frameworks such as Standing Committees or Citizens Panels do not of themselves constitute a consultation exercise, but may facilitate or hose a number or such exercises
  • A single consultation exercise might consist of a number of phases organised over such a period of time
Consultation FatigueA perception voiced mostly by consultees, reflecting an excessive burden of dealing with too many consultations. First coined in a Northern Ireland debate in 2000.The Consultation InstituteFounded in 2003. Seeks to promote the highest standards of public, stakeholder and employee consultation by initiating research, publications and specialist events in order to disseminate best practice and improve subsequent decision-making.Consultation MandateA document prepared at the time of instigating a consultation exercise, and specifying its essential objectives.Note:
  • The Consultation Institute has adopted a seven-item data model for such a Mandate; the items are known as:- Identity/Target/Issue/Actor/Action/Date/Wider Aim
Consultation NarrativeAn account of the background to a consultation exercise, followed by a description of the issues and an explanation of how consultees can contribute a response.Consultation OutcomeMay be simply a report or may refer to a decision, policy or programme announced or taken as a direct consequence of a consultation exercise on the relevant issue.Note:
  • Where a decision policy or programme has taken account of a consultation which was relevant but not directly linked, it would not normally be appropriate to refer to them as consultation outcome
Consultation OutputThe knowledge, data, material or insights complied in the dialogue phase of a consultation exercise, and/or any analysis or report based upon this material.Consultation PaperFrequently used term to describe a consultation narrative complete with covering explanations and background.Consultation PeriodNormally used to describe the interval between publication of a consultation narrative and the closing date for responses.Notes:
  • This particularly applies to documentary consultation (i.e. written), and is less applicable to other dialogue methods used during the course of a consultation exercise
  • The Code of Practice on Consultation (Jan 2004) published by the Cabinet Office states (par. 1.4) that the period should be “a minimum of 12 weeks.”
Consultation ProcessThe sequence of activities and actions undertaken as part of a consultation.Consultation ResponseA Response is the statement made by a consultee in answer to a question or as comment upon a document as part of a consultation exercise.
  • A single consultee can make a variety of responses – even to a single document
  • A consolidated response is where the consultee presents all its responses as one document or submission
  • Postings on an e-discussion forum, for example, would not normally be regarded as a response
Consultation SclerosisA climate of policy inactivity caused by too many consultations.
See also Consultation FatigueNote:
  • (first attributed to Mark Durkan, Leader of the Social Democratic and Labour Party, Northern Ireland)
Consultation StrategyA document explaining an organisation’s (or department’s) approach to defined aspects of consultation and normally covering its objectives, policies and preferred methods, along with key processes required to meet those objectives.Consultation ToolkitMaterials assembled to assist those involved in the preparation and execution of a consultation. Can contain detailed descriptions of dialogue methods and occasions when and how these should be deployed.Consultation WindowThe period of time (usually within the overall decision window) allocated to the process of consultation, and culminating with the publication or delivery of the consultation output or findings.
  • The consultation window is not the same as the consultation period
  • The Code of Practice requires a 12 week consultation period, but the consultation window needs to take account of a planning period before the consultation period and an influencing period afterwards during which the output is considered by decision-makers
Consultative ReferendumA referendum that is not binding but whose outcome will be taken into account by its instigator. See also ReferendaConsulteeThe individual or organisation who responds to a consultation or participates in consultation exercises.ConsultorThe individual or organisation initiating a consultation exercise and who will normally be responsible of acting upon its findings.
  • On occasions, the Consultor may sub-contract the administration/organisation of some or all of the exercise to a third party. Under these circumstances such a 3rd party does not become the Consultor – but effectively acts as the Consultor’s agent.
ContributionStatement or Statements made by consultees as part of a dialogue in a consultation exercise. These could include statements made in public meetings, focus groups, survey responses or a posting as an e-discussion forum.Conversation CaféA Conversation Café (www.conversationcafe.org) is a 90 minute hosted conversation, held in a public setting like a café, where anyone is welcome to join. A simple format helps people feel at ease and gives everyone a chance to speak. At Conversation Cafés, everyone is “the talk show”-and it’s also fine for people to simply listen. These are not instead of action. They are before action-a place to gather your thoughts, find your natural allies, discover blind spots and open your heart to the heart of “the other”.Convenience SampleUsing a sample of people who happen to be handy or easy to survey. Regarded as acceptable in preliminary research, but would not be considered representative of the population as a whole.Corporate ConsultationWhere large organisations in the public, private or voluntary sectors use consultation techniques to engage with a range of stakeholders on issues relating to the organisation’s role, objectives and activities.Note:
  • Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programmes are implemented by many (mostly) private sector firms and make extensive use of consultation processes
Cultural Complementarity ProcessDiverse people working together to attain mutually agreed goals that would be difficult to accomplish via separate efforts. Work is done in a circle using a process of consensus, believing that all cultures and people have different areas of excellence as well as different challenges which, when brought together, will complement each other.Customer FeedbackSee Comment & Complaints CardsCustomer PanelsSee User PanelsCustomer Relationship Management (CRM)The management of all interactions with customers.Note:

  • This term is extensively used in the ICT industry and has been applied to the public sector – where the acronym is sometimes taken to mean Citizen Relationship Management
  • In the context of CRM, consultation can be seen a one specialised form of stakeholder interaction, and CRM systems should be able to manage such transactions
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Data benchmarkingA form of benchmarking which is a comparison of the consultation output obtained from a range of sufficiently comparable consultation exercises.Decision WindowA period of time available to prepare for and/or to undertake a decision.Decision-led ConsultationWhere the main objective is to secure a clear decision based upon the best available advice and well-informed contributions from the public or relevant stakeholders.Deliberative Democracy1. Deliberative democracy rests on the core notion of citizens and their representatives deliberating about public problems and solutions under conditions that are conducive to reasoned reflection and refined public judgment; a mutual willingness to understand the values, perspectives, and interests of others; and the possibility of reframing their interests and perspectives in light of a joint search for common interests and mutually acceptable solutions. (From the Civic Practices Network )2. Deliberative Democracy is “Decision making by discussion among free and equal citizens. The idea that democracy revolves around the transformation rather than simply the aggregation of preferences.” (Jon Elster, Deliberative Democracy. 1998, Cambridge University Press.)                              Deliberative DialogueDeliberative dialogue combines two processes – dialogue and deliberation – in order to create mutual understanding, build relationships, solve public problems, address policy issues, and to connect personal concerns with public concerns.Deliberative MappingInvolves both specialists and members of the public and combines varied approaches to assess how participants rate different policy options against a set of defined criteria.Deliberative Opinion Polls1. A representative sample of between 100 and 500 members of the public are initially polled to give a baseline opinion. They are then given extra information and views on the topic. At the end of the process they are polled again.  See also Opinion Polls2. Deliberative Polling (a registered technique by The Center for Deliberative Polling  , originally at University of Texas and now at Stanford University) is an attempt to use television and public opinion research in a new and constructive way. A random, representative sample is first polled on the issues. After this baseline poll, members of the sample are invited to gather at a single place to discuss the issues. Carefully balanced briefing materials are sent to the participants and are also made publicly available. The participants engage in dialogue with competing experts and political leaders based on questions they develop in small group discussions with trained moderators. Parts of the weekend events are broadcast on television, either live or in taped and edited form. After the weekend deliberations, the sample is asked the same questions again. The resulting changes in opinion represent the conclusions the public would reach, if people had a good opportunity to become more informed and more engaged by the issues.Deliberative Public EngagementAn approach to decision-making that allows participants to consider relevant information, discuss the issues and options and develop their thinking together before coming to a view. It can include Citizens’ Juries and Citizens’ Panels as well as large scale meetings such as Citizens’ Summits.Delphi TechniqueA technique for gathering data that is similar to focus groups. Its value is that, unlike focus groups, Delphi groups do not have to physically meet, so it is a method of generating ideas and facilitating consensus among individuals who have special knowledge to share, but who are not always in contact with each other. A Delphi study carefully selects individuals who have knowledge necessary to analyse a specific problem. Initially, the participants do not interact with each other. Through the efforts of one facilitator, who serves as a clearinghouse, the panellists see and react to each other’s ideas through a series of surveys, and they share and generate new ideas based on an emerging consensus among the panel members.DemocsA conversation game enabling small groups to discuss public policy issues. No speakers or experts are needed, as pre-prepared cards convey the necessary facts. Works best for six people over a couple of hours. See the New Economics siteDemographicsThe characteristics of human populations and population segments.Desk ResearchThe identification and analysis of information that has already been compiled and published in some form or other. This type of information is known as “secondary” because it already exists as opposed to “primary” which would require a survey or research study to produce new data.Dialogue ManagementThe process of organising the interaction between consultors and consultees.Dialogue MappingThe process of visually recording and posting all of the various ideas, perspectives, concerns and questions that arise in a dialogue as they emerge. This process helps participants continue to reflect on the “larger picture” that is emerging through the contributions of all of the various participants. It can be done in a low-tech manner, with chart paper and markers, or using high-tech equipment. (Rosa Zubizarreta, Co-Intelligence Institute )Dialogue MethodsDifferent techniques of interaction between consultors and consultees – there are many recognised methods.Dialogue MixThe combination of dialogue methods selected for use in a particular consultation exerciseDigital DivideThe gap between those who have access to forms of new technology, particularly the Web, and those who do not.DigiTVDigital TV (or DigiTV)  is the technology that allows a Local Authority to publish content and create interactive services on Sky, Virgin Media, mobile phone platforms as well as kiosksDirect decision makingWhere the participants of a consultation are themselves are empowered to take the decisions.DirectorySee Consultation DirectoryDiscovery InterviewA way to explore the impact of illness on patients’ everyday lives during each stage of their journey through the healthcare system and to assess how well the system has met their needs.Discussion ForumSee eDiscussion ForumDiscussion guideAlso known as a topic guide, this is an outline of key issues and areas of questioning used to guide a qualitative interview or group discussion. Such guides vary greatly in level of detail and in how flexibly they are applied – some use ‘discussion guide’ to refer to a more structured form, and ‘topic guide’ to refer to a looser, more open formDistrict CirclesSimilar to a Citizens’ Panel but usually composed of fewer people and specifically represents the age and gender structure of the area as shown by the latest census.Diversity ForumsUsed to promote multicultural understanding in gender, age, religion, lifestyle, belief, physical capability, and culture, and to improve strategies for managing workplace diversity effectively.Documentary ConsultationThe practice of publishing and circulating a consultation paper (normally containing a consultation narrative) and inviting responses, comments or answers to questions, from stakeholders or the general public.Notes: This term is preferred to the previously used Written Consultation because it acknowledges the increasing role of the internet whereby many consultation papers are only published electronicallyDynamic FacilitatorsDynamic Facilitation Skills empowers participants to a new level of facilitative competence – how to help people address difficult issues creatively and collaboratively, to achieve breakthrough results. Dynamic Facilitators go with the flow more than the traditional facilitator. People in meetings can just be themselves and not hold back. The dynamic facilitator assures that everything that is said works as a possible contribution. The process builds trust, respect, and the spirit of community. Everyone is enthused and committed to the results. See also Wisdom Councils.

E

E

eCommunitiesThese are a personalised, interactive ways for people and groups to communicate on the Internet, making it easy to exchange information among them no matter where they are located.eConsultationThe process by which the opinions of individuals and stakeholders are solicited and recorded electronically.eDemocracy1.Use of electronic communications technologies, i.e. Internet, in enhancing democratic processes, usually by making them more accessible and by making citizen participation in public policy decision-making more direct.2.The adaptation and enhancement of traditional democratic processes between elected representatives and citizens, over the internet. There is much debate on which processes should be made available in the electronic medium, although most would agree that eventually voting, petitions, consultations, and committee processes will all be online. (From dialoguecircles)eDiscussion ForumsThe use of chat-based systems that enable members of an online community (or visitors) to engage in a text dialogue, usually moderated from a central point in order to lead or guide a discussion and ensure the observance of any rules of participation. Not to be confused with blogs.eGovernment or eGovThe application of eBusiness technologies and strategies to government or public service organisations, with a view to harnessing new electronic methods of citizen interaction.Notes:The practice of prefacing a wide variety of conventional terms with the ‘e’ prefix has become fashionable, but this is considered by many to be a temporary phase, as virtually all activities become e-enabledeConsultation and eDemocracy are regarded as specific applications within the wider generic subject of e-governmenteParticipationThe use of ICT to open new channels for participation in the democratic process between elections.Notes: This comprises eParticipation of citizens in:Government’s policy processThe processes of policy making, law making and scrutiny by elected representativesThe processes of policy formulation in political parties and other civil society organisations.ePetitionsA petition set up via a website. This may be by a local or central government department or by a pressure group. There are also a number of online services allowing anyone to start an ePetitioneSurveyA web-based document enabling a questionnaire to be completed on-line.eVotingeVoting (also known as electronic voting and including Internet voting and other online voting methods) is any of several means of determining people’s collective intent electronically. Electronic voting includes voting by kiosk, internet, telephone, punch card, and optical scan ballot.Employee ConsultationWhere employers use consultation techniques to engage with their employees on a wide range of workplace-related issues.Note: The implementation of the European Directive for Employee Information  & Consultation in the UK (6 April 2005) applies to organisations employing 150 or more staffEmpowermentThe practice of providing decision-making power to individuals or organisations, often associated with redistributing responsibility from Managers to their team members.Note: In the context of social structures, to empower a community is to increase its ability to do things for itself and is therefore higher up the “Ladder of Participation” than consultationEnabling TechniquesSee Projective and enabling techniquesEngagementActions and processes taken or undertaken to establish effective relationships with individuals or groups so that more specific interactions can then take place.See also Public Engagement also Stakeholder EngagementErrorSee Margin of ErrorEthicsSee Research EthicsEvaluationStudying a consultation or public engagement process to assess it’s achievements and to help improve future practiceExhibitionsIntended to inform the general public or a specified group – either to give them background knowledge to be used in a consultation or to inform of the resulting decisions. See also Open DaysExpert ForumAn expert forum allows participants to take part in discussions, share best practices, and request advice about effective strategies and solutions with leading experts and issue gurus.

F

F

FacilitatorA facilitator serves a discussion group by keeping the discussion focused, helping the group consider a variety of views, process difficult questions and move towards desired goals. See also Dynamic FacilitatorsFeedbackMethods of communicating the output or outcome of consultations to those who participated.Feedback FormA dialogue method whereby an information leaflet or other communication with a target group contains a section or other provision for individuals or organisations to provide comments or reactions for consideration by a consultor.FilmFilm can be used in two ways. As a method of presentation of consultation issues and also as a way, as with Theatre & Drama, of enabling people to express their views on issues.Fishbowl TechniqueA technique used to increase participation and understanding of issues. The fishbowl represents an inner group of participants in a roundtable format involved in a decision making process that is ‘witnessed’ by a larger group who have the opportunity for input and questioning.Focus GroupA dialogue method whereby a discussion group is assembled for the purpose of explaining participants’ views and attitudes to a structured set of questions and issues and normally chaired by a trained facilitator. See also Short Life Focus Groups also Delphi TechniqueNotes:For public and stakeholder consultations Focus Groups are popular form of qualitative input, helpful to consultors in identifying issues and the range of opinions held by different types of individuals or stakeholdersThe effectiveness of focus groups as a tool of consultation often depends upon the quality of the notes made and the conclusions reached.  It can also depend upon the way that qualitative methods such as Focus Groups are linked to quantitative methodsFuture Search1. A dialogue method involving a conference or meeting where a shared vision for the future of a community or organisation is discussed and created. It will include a formulation of an action plan.2. A strategic planning process used world-wide in diverse cultures to achieve shared goals and fast action, future search leads to cooperative planning that lasts for years. Future search  is a planning meeting that helps people transform their capability for action very quickly. The meeting is task-focused. It brings together 60 to 80 people in one room or hundreds in parallel rooms. Future search brings people from all walks of life into the same conversation – those with resources, expertise, formal authority and need. They meet for 16 hours spread across three days. People tell stories about their past, present and desired future. Through dialogue they discover their common ground. Only then do they make concrete action plans. The meeting design comes from theories and principles tested in many cultures for the past 50 years. It relies on mutual learning among stakeholders as a catalyst for voluntary action and follow-up.

G

G

GamesUsed at times to provide a consultation medium that can be considered as less threatening than formal consultation.See also Theatre & DramaGatekeepersMain contact for a group or organisationGershon Report“Releasing Resources to the Front Line” published in June 2004 and making the case for significant savings in local and central government.Notes:Although identifying 84,000 job losses in central government departments, the long-term impact of this Report is expected to lie in changing the climate of management in the public sectorConsultation may be impacted.  See “What the Gershon Report means for Consultation”- Institute Briefing Paper No 3 pub. July 2004Graffiti WallSimilar to Brainstorming but does not have to be immediate. Ideas can be written on the wall over a period of time, possibly some weeks, and assessed at the end of the period. Grassroots MobilisationDescribes the practice of motivating members of the general public and communities of interest to participate in democratic processes, usually on specific issues.Green MappingThe Green Map System  is a locally adaptable, globally shared framework for environmental mapmaking. It invites design teams of all ages and backgrounds to illuminate the connections between natural and human environments by mapping their local urban or rural community.Ground RulesAlso known as ‘agreements’ or ‘guidelines,’ ground rules are guidelines for discussion that participants agree to try to abide by during a dialogic or deliberative process. Ground rules are meant create a safe space for all participants. These may be presented by the facilitator and then added to by participants, or the participants may come up with them themselves. Common ground rules are “use ‘I’ statements,” “practice active listening,” “respect confidentiality,” and “try not to interrupt.”GuidelinesSee Ground Rules Gunning PrinciplesSee Sedley Requirements

H

H

Hard-to-Hear or Hard-to-Listen-toGroups that respond to consultations but reply briefly or in a low key, making it hard to balance their arguments against more strident replies.Hard-to-ReachA phrase used to describe organisations and groups which have traditionally been less successfully engaged by consultors.Many groups characterised as “hard-to-reach” resent the use of the term, claiming that attempts to reach them have simply been inadequateA better term for these groups could be “infrequently heard” or “seldom heard” (see entry above)Health Impact AssessmentsA structured method of assessing and improving the health consequences of policies, programs and projects. It involves working in partnership with a range of agencies and the public to consult and draw together the available evidence. 

I

I

InclusionThe act of involving others. In consultation it is particularly important to ensure inclusion of Hard-to-Reach or Seldom-Heard groupsInfluencingThe process of using consultation output to advise decision-makers and inform their actions.Intergroup DialogueFace-to-face meetings of people from at least two different social identity groups. Designed to enable participants to foster a deeper understanding of diversity and justice issues through involvement in experimental activities, individual and small groups reflections and dialogues.Intermodal ConsultationTerm describing a mixed approach to consultation including both on- and off-line methods and tools, each complementing the other to achieve the objectives set.Interpretation  Determining the meaning of data compiled and analysed as part of a consultation exercise.InterviewsSee Qualitative InterviewsInvolvementEffective interactions between planners, decision-makers, individual and representative stakeholders to identify issues and exchange views on a continuous basis.Issues WorkshopsParticipants sit in groups and, after an introductory talk, look through and discuss materials given to them about the topic. Can be used to discover views on virtually any issue.Iterative ConsultationWhere the consultation narrative, along with questions and issues identified for debate, can change dynamically during the course of the exercise to reflect views expressed in contributions by consultees. 

J

J

Jargon BusterA glossary or dictionary listing the technical terms pertaining to a particular consultation and explaining them in simple, layman, terms.Jelly Bean TreeA pre-printed schematic showing a large number of “Jelly Beans” in different situations on a tree. e.g. one may be sitting comfortably, another hanging precariously, another trying with difficulty to climb up. Consultees (usually children) are invited to chose a “bean” which represents their current mood or feeling towards a project.

K

K

Knowledge Café Led by a facilitator, who begins by explaining the purpose of knowledge cafés and the role of conversation. The facilitator then introduces the café topic and poses one or two key open-ended questions. When the introduction session is complete, the group breaks into small groups, with about five people in each group. Each small group discusses the questions for about 45 minutes. The small group discussions are not led by a facilitator, and no summary of the discussion is captured for subsequent feedback to the large group. Participants then return to the circle and the facilitator leads the group through the final 45 minute session, in which people reflect on the small group discussions and share any thoughts, insights and ideas on the topic that may have emerged. See also Conversation Café.

L

L

Ladder of ParticipationA five-stage sequence of activities illustrative of the range of public engagement styles currently in use (per Arnstein, Wilcox and others).Note: The five stages are information, consultation, joint decisions, joint activity and support.  Consultation is, therefore, the second stage of the ladderLimited Public MeetingA public meeting held in a venue that is specific to one type of stakeholder, and which excludes others. For example a home for the elderly.LINksSee Local Involvement NetworksLocal CompactsSee CompactsLocal Involvement NetworksLocal Involvement Networks (LINks)  aim to give citizens a stronger voice in how their health and social care services are delivered. Run by local individuals and groups and independently supported – the role of LINks is to find out what people want, monitor local services and to use their powers to hold them to account.Local Strategic PartnershipA Local Strategic Partnership (LSP)  is a single non-statutory, multi-agency body, which matches local authority boundaries, and aims to bring together, at a local level, a range of Government agencies alongside representatives of the voluntary and community sectors with a view to influencing (or in cases, managing) the delivery of public services and to oversee Community Plans. LSPs are key to tackling deep seated, multi-faceted problems, requiring a range of responses from different bodies. Local partners working through a LSP will be expected to take many of the major decisions about priorities and funding for their local area.Localism (or New Localism)Localism is making services more locally accountable, devolving more power to local communities and, in the process, forging a modern relationship between the state, citizens and services (Speech by Rt Hon Alan Milburn MP ‘Localism: The need for a new settlement’, DEMOS seminar, 21 January 2004)There are three main elements that provide the foundation for new localism:

  • providing national standards and accountability for high quality services
  • devolving power to councils and giving additional freedom to meet local needs, and
  • building capacity at local level to deliver better services and provide effective community leadership.
(Adapted from a speech by Rt Hon Nick Raynsford MP ODPM ‘New localism: making a reality of the myth’, 17 March 2003)LSPSee Local Strategic Partnership

M

M

Mad, Sad and Glad BoardA three sectioned board inviting people to say what angers them, makes them sad or makes them happy within their communities or with regard to a particular project.MappingSee Community Mapping also Deliberative Mapping also Stakeholder MappingMargin of ErrorAn estimate of a poll’s variance in reported percentages if the same poll were taken multiple times. The larger the margin of error, the less confidence one has that the poll’s reported percentages are close to the “true” percentages, that is the percentages in the whole population.Market Town HealthchecksThe MTHC was developed to help and support towns to sustain and regenerate themselves, as part of the Market Towns Initiative. Activities included “intensive and systematic consultation”MeetingsSee Bilateral Meetings also Public MeetingsModeratorAn individual assigned the task of supervising an e-discussion forum (or other interactive form of e-consultation) on a day-to-day basis.Modified Borda CountThe modified Borda count (MBC) is a preference voting procedure by which is identified that option which gains the highest average preference score. It may also be regarded as a points system, in which the winner is the outcome with the most points. Also known as Borda preferendumMystery ShoppingAn exercise where trained individuals contact an organisation (via visit, telephone, letter or e-mail) with a query and then report back on the service they receive. 

N

N

NanojuryNanojury was a ‘two-way-street’ or ‘mutualistic’ process in that it allowed jurors to spend as much time discussing a subject completely determined by them, as it did a second topic that had been pre-determined by the jury’s core funders – in this case NanotechnologyNeeds AssessmentA systematic process for determining goals, identifying discrepancies between optimal and actual performance, and establishing priorities for action.Neighbourhood Action PlanningNeighbourhood action planning is when partners/groups etc. involved in developing plans for a neighbourhood get together to devise their formal action plan, with help from public bodies, agencies etc. A residents’ consultancy can help with this and their advice will help to shape the action plan. See also Residents’ ConsultancyNIMBY“Not in my back yard!” An expression denoting an objection to proposals based not upon principle, but upon its impact upon a stakeholder’s immediate environment.Nominal GroupThis technique sets out a structured process to identify individual views and ideas to reach a group consensus. A group is asked to consider a particular topic. This is first done individually to produce ideas and then the ideas are discussed as a group. Priorities are then assigned. More formal version of Delphi TechniqueNotice and CommentA form of public consultation used in the United States under which a proposed rule is published in the Federal Register and is open to comment by the general public. Rules that are exempt from “notice-and-comment” requirements of the APA are those dealing with military or foreign affairs functions and those “relating to agency management or personnel or to public property, loans, grants, benefits or contracts.”Non-probability SamplingSee Quota Sampling

O

O

Online …See also  e…Online CommunityIndividuals who belong to a network sharing common interests and using new technology tools to interact with each other.Open Days, ConsultativeUsually relating to fixed buildings or institutions and meant to show the physical attributes of the building or the work that takes place within it for the purposes of a consultation.Open QuestionThis means questions where you can express your own views and opinions rather than picking your answer from a list of optionsOpen Space1. A democratic framework is created from which participants create their own programme of discussions around a central theme. Flexible method that can cope with very large numbers of people.2. Open Space Technology  was created in the mid-1980s by organizational consultant Harrison Owen. Open Space conferences have no keynote speakers, no pre-announced schedules of workshops, no panel discussions, no organizational booths. Instead, anyone who wants to initiate a discussion or activity, writes it down on a large sheet of paper in big letters and then stands up and announces it to the group. After selecting one of the many pre-established times and places, they post their proposed workshop on a wall. When everyone who wants to has announced and posted their initial offerings, it is time for “the village marketplace”: Participants mill around the wall, putting together their personal schedules for the remainder of the conference. The first meetings begin immediately.  Opinion PollsThese are used where a representative sample of people are required to vote for or against one or more options.See also Deliberative Opinion Polls also ReferendumsOpinionmeterThis is a unit (basically a simple keypad terminal and screen although more advanced units use touch screens) with the capacity to hold a number of questions in a questionnaire format. Members of the public can use the keypad to indicate their response. Usually located in a place relevant to the research and easily accessible to the target group.OutcomeSee Consultation OutcomeOutputSee Consultation Output

P

P

PanelsSee Citizens’ PanelsParish MappingSee Community AuditParish PlansExternally facilitated mainly by Rural Community Councils (RCCs) they take place within rural communities with typically less than 3,000 residents. The plan tends to take 12 – 18 months to complete and up to 5 years to undertake and achieve actions. The plan will result in detailed actions and priorities for the local communityParking LotBlank poster simply titled Parking Lot where thoughts that might initially seem irrelevant to the engagement can be captured. Suited to any participatory event or activity such as Focus Groups, Exhibitions and Street ConsultationsParticipation1. Efforts that people make in order to influence public policy decisions2. A social process through which people are able to influence and share control over the decisions which affect themParticipation, Bottom-upCreation of new empowered social groupsParticipation, Top-downOpening-up of existing government structures to greater public involvementParticipation-led ConsultationWhere the main objective is to secure the greatest possible number and quality of respondents in a consultation exercise.Participatory Action Research (PAR)Research that involves all relevant parties in actively examining together current action (which they experience as problematic) in order to change and improve it. Research in PAR is ideally by  the local people and for  the local people. Research is designed to address specific issues identified by local people, and the results are directly applied to the problems at hand.Participatory Appraisal TechniquesA selection of approaches that enable local people to identify their own priorities and make their own decisions about the future with the organising party facilitating, listening and learning.Participatory BudgetingEngages with local people to take decisions on the spending priorities for a part of a public budget in their local area. It must be conducted on an inclusive basis, and can help bring about a change in the relationship between communities, elected councillors and local authorities. The Local Government White Paper identified PB as a key tool for empowering local people and this was reinforced in the recently launched Community Empowerment Action Plan.  Also known as Community KittiesParticipatory Strategic PlanningA consensus-building approach that enables a community or group to articulate together how they would like their community or organisation to develop over the next few years. See also VisioningParticipatory TheatreSee TheatrePetitionsA document proposing a certain action and addressed to some central or local government department or company and supported by many people evidenced by their signatures. See also ePetitionsPilotingThe technique of trying out changes in small areas, or a small number of respondents,  to test whether those changes are likely to work for the whole service.Planning AidPlanning Aid  has been at the forefront of engaging communities in the planning process. Now Planning Aid is working to further widen engagement in the planning process and to give an equal voice to all those involved in planning. It provides free, independent and professional help, advice and support on planning issues to people and communities who cannot afford to hire a planning consultant. Planning Aid complements the work of local authorities but is wholly independent of them.Planning Cells (German Model)A set of temporary citizens’ panels containing about 25 randomly selected citizens each, convened simultaneously in different locations to consider the same public issue. They study the issue, interview experts and each come up with recommendations which are collected, compared and then compiled into one “citizen report” that is cleared through the participants before being delivered to the convener and the mediaPlanning for RealInvolves the construction of a large ‘model’ of the area concerned. Both maps and 3-D models can be used. Also known as Plan Your Community
PollsSee Deliberative Polls also Opinion PollsPositive DevianceAn approach to behavioral and social change based on the observation that in any community, there are people whose uncommon but successful behaviors or strategies enable them to find better solutions to a problem than their peers, despite facing similar challenges and having no extra resources or knowledge than their peersPre-ConsultationDiscussions which take place between a consultor and key stakeholders with a view to clarifying the issues and determining the scope of a forthcoming consultation.Primary ConsultationAny consultation being conducted with a view to influencing a decision policy or programme, and not occasioned by the need to submit a response to another consultation exercise. See also Secondary ConsultationPrioritisation MatrixA technique used to achieve consensus within a specific group of participants about an issue. The matrix helps rank problems or issues (usually generated through brainstorming or other techniques) by a particular criterion that is important to the project, as defined by the participants. This allows participants to clearly see which issues are the most important to work on solving first. Prioritisation matrices are used to determine what participants consider to be the most pressing issues.Priority SearchA computer-aided survey process combining qualitative and quantitative techniques, aimed at improving the performance of an organisation by giving the people surveyed the chance to identify their needs and wants, and state their priorities.Probability SamplingSee SamplingProcessSee Consultation ProcessProcess benchmarkingA form of benchmarking which is a comparison of the cross-related processes used by different organisations.Projective and enabling techniquesA wide range of tasks and games in which respondents can be asked to participate during an interview or group, designed to facilitate, extend or enhance the nature of the discussion.Public DeliberationPublic deliberation is one name for the way we go about deciding how to act. In weighing – together – the costs and consequences of various approaches to solving problems, people become aware of the differences in the way others see those costs and consequences. That enables them to find courses of action that are consistent with what is valuable to the community as a whole. In that way the public can define the public’s interests – issue by issue (David Mathews and Noelle McAfee, Making Choices Together)Public EngagementA process that encourages substantive deliberation in a community.Notes:The term covers a wide variety of practices, of which consultation is oneThe Ladder of Participation illustrates how different forms of engagement relate to each other, though many of the practices could apply to engagement in specific businesses or professional communities – and not just to the general publicPublic MeetingA dialogue method, whereby members of the general public are invited by the consultor (or his/her agent) without restriction, to an event organised to discuss issues of relevance. See also Limited Public MeetingPublic Policy ConsultationWhere consultors initiate a consultation process on aspects of legislation, regulation, funding or administration of activities initiated by Government or its agencies.

Q

Q

Qualitative InterviewsThese use largely open-ended questions to explore issues at some depth and length. The interviewer needs to build up trust and confidence.Also called In-Depth InterviewsQualitative methodsTechniques designed to understand not just what individuals or stakeholders believe, but why.  Such methods are intended to illustrate the range of opinions, and are not meant to be statistically significant.Quantitative AnalysisAn analysis that aims to find out not only what views people have but also why they have those views.Quantitative methodsTechniques designed to produce statistically valid data capable of measuring the extent to which opinions are held.QuestionnairesCan be simple, with only Yes or No options, or more complicated, asking for wider opinions. In both cases some background information must be included. See also Questions also Recruitment QuestionnairesNote: Might be via:- Post, Telephone, Face-to-face, The WebQuestionsMany types. Typically used in consultation questionnaires are:-

  • A Closed question – can be answered “yes” or “no”
  • An Open question – asks the respondent to think and reflect. Will give the interviewer opinions and feelings.
  • Grid or Matrix questions – The questions are placed one under the other, forming a matrix with response categories along the top and a list of questions down the side.
  • Multiple-answer – a question that can have more than one answer
  • Multiple-response – possible answers are listed and the person has to choose one or more
  • Scaled questions – Responses are graded from, say, 1 to 10
Quota SamplingA type of stratified sampling in which selection of sampling units within strata e.g. age, sex is done by interviewers on a non-random basis, controlled to some extent by quotas allocated to different strata. Each interviewer is given an assignment of interviews, specifying how many of them are to be with men and how many with women, how many with people in various age groups and so forth. These quotas are calculated from available data (e.g. Census) to arrange that, for the sampling unit, the sexes, age groups and social class are represented correctly.Also known as Non-probability Sampling.

R

R

Rapid Rural AppraisalTechnique designed to avoid many traps identified with rural research. An exploratory technique that allows questions to be changed as the process develops. Requires a team of researchers.Recruitment QuestionnaireThe questionnaire used as a tool to help screen and select appropriate respondents for a given study. In the US, and increasingly in the UK, this is known as a ‘screener’.ReferendumsWhere votes are cast on a question or proposition as means of assessing the wider public opinion on an important issue. They can provide a foundation or legitimacy for collective decisions and thus facilitate their acceptance and application by the population concerned.Notes:

  • Needs to be preceded by the provision of information on the issue and public debate
  • Referendums do not have to be binding, and are sometimes called consultative referendums
  • They can be held by different levels of jurisdiction or for specific geographical areas
  • As a consultation technique it is an unusual practice, best used very sparingly
Representative SampleWhere the population is divided into strata dependent on some particular factor (age, social class, economic class etc) and a random sample taken from each strata.Research EthicsThe application of fundamental ethical principles to the commissioning and carrying out of consultationsResidents’ ConsultancyA general term used to describe initiatives that encourage ‘residents of areas undergoing regeneration to share, or market, the skills they have acquired through participating in the regeneration process’. The aim of residents’ consultancy schemes is to promote good practice and encourage involvement in neighbourhood renewal.Residents’ PanelSimilar to a Citizens’ Panel but composed of people resident in a particular and defined areaRespondentDescribes an individual or organisation making a formal statement or answering questions as part of a consultation exercise.ResponseThe statement made by a consultee in answer to a question, or as comment upon a document, as part of a consultation exercise.Note:
  • A single consultee can make a variety of responses – even to a single document
  • A consolidated response is where the consultee presents all its responses as one document or submission
  • Postings on an e-discussion forum, for example, would not normally be regarded as a response
Response RateIn consultations this refers to the ratio of number of people who answered the survey divided by the number of people in the sample. It is usually expressed in the form of a percentage. Also known as completion rate or return rateRoadshowsA travelling presentation outlining the consultation narrative and providing consultees with an opportunity to express their views.Role PlaySee Theatre & Drama Roundtable ForumsThese can be used where there is a need to bring together, on neutral ground, groups with conflicting views. A skilled facilitator is required.

S

S

Sample / SamplingA sample is a group of people selected from a larger group. By studying the sample it is hoped to draw valid conclusions about the larger group. See also Representative SampleSampling ErrorThis is when analysing collected data, the samples observed differ in such things as means and standard deviations from the population from which the sample is taken. It is controlled by ensuring that, as much as possible, the samples taken are a true random sample from all possible samples. If the observations are a true random sample, statistics can then make probability estimates of the sampling error. See also Margin of ErrorSampling FrameThe sampling frame is the list of individuals, households or institutions from which a sample of potential respondents is drawn. In order to make inferences from survey data, the consultor must understand how the sampling frame defines the population represented, as well as which population groups are excluded.Samoan CirclesA leaderless meeting intended to help negotiations in controversial issues. The Samoan circle has people seated in a circle within a circle, however only those in the inner circle are allowed to speak. The inner circle should represent all the different viewpoints present, and all others must remain silent. The process offers others a chance to speak only if they join the ‘inner circle’. See also Fishbowl TechniqueScreenerSee Recruitment QuestionnaireSecondary ConsultationWhere consultees undertake their own consultation exercise among their own stakeholders (eg members, residents, subscribers etc) as an aid to influencing their response or submission to a primary consultation.Section 75Refers to an important provision of the Northern Ireland Act 1998 concerning equality of opportunity.Note: This provision has led to a general requirement in all public bodies in NI to avoid discrimination in any consultation exerciseDiscrimination covers issues of: Religious belief, Political opinion, Racial group, Age, Marital status, Sexual orientation, Gender, Disablity, DependancySection 242Section 242 of the consolidated NHS Act 2006 places a duty on NHS trusts, primary care trusts and strategic health authorities to make arrangements to involve patients and the public in service planning and operation, and in the development of proposals for changes. This duty is supported by the guidance Real involvement: working with people to improve healthcareSedley RequirementsThe standards for a proper consultation exercise are known as the Sedley Requirements or Gunning Principles (having been set out by Stephen Sedley, QC in the case R v Brent London Borough Council, ex parte Gunning (1985) and are as follows: whether or not consultation is a legal requirement, if it is embarked upon it must be carried out properly; to be proper, consultation must be undertaken at a time when proposals are still at a formative stage; it must include sufficient reasons for particular proposals to allow those consulted to give intelligent consideration and an intelligent response; adequate time must be given for this purpose; and the product of consultation must be conscientiously taken into account when the ultimate decision is taken.Seldom HeardSee Hard to ReachSemantic AnchorWords used to assist respondents place a value on a numerical scale in survey questionnairesSeminarsUseful method of providing and, to a lesser extent, obtaining information from a large group of people. High profile ones can attract valuable media attention.Sensitivity PanelA form of reconvened group discussion, developed in the UK in the 1960’s by Bill Schlackman, where the specific intention is to sensitise the group to an issue of relevance to the client. With repeated group attendance and discussion of an issue, participants develop a greater awareness of and sensitivity to this issue. While their contribution is clearly no longer spontaneous, their developed view may be invaluable in unravelling a problem or helping answer a research question in new and a useful waySensory WalksA consultation method used when dealing with a particular geographical location and its services, whereby the consultees walk around the area and record their observations and emotions with the aim of finding their true feelings about the project under consultation. Particularly effective with the young and the elderly.Service UserThe user, customer or consumer of a service and, therefore, one suitable to be consulted about that service. See also Consultee
Sham ConsultationWhere there is a perception that decisions have already been taken and that a consultation is only really a public relations exercise.See also TokenismShort Life Focus GroupsIntended to get round repetitive membership of focus groups. Participants are recruited in the street, and in such a way that there is a rough cross-section of the community according to age, gender, ethnicity.
Social CapacityThe sum of the relationships and trust between individuals within a community.Social CapitalInstitutions, relationships, networks, values and norms which shape the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions.

  • The UK Government has formally adopted the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s definition of social capital: “networks together with shared norms, values and understandings that facilitate co-operation within or among groups.”
  • In particular, social capital involves building ‘bonds’ and ‘bridges’ between people as a foundation for social support and community relationships (Putnam, 2000). Effective community involvement, especially horizontal involvement and networking, are key elements in the building of social capital. (Source: Home Office, 2004)
Social ExclusionThis is what can happen when a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, unfair discrimination, poor housing, high crime environments, bad health and family breakdown lead to people or places being excluded from the outcomes and opportunities enjoyed by mainstream society.Social NetworksRecently social networks such as facebook, are becoming increasingly used for engagement to collect opinions or by simply ‘liking’ a topic.Socrates CaféConsists of spontaneous yet rigourous dialogue that inspires people to articulate and discover their unique philosophical persepctives and worldview. Open-ended and can be considered a success if there are more questions at the end than there were at the outset.StakeholderAn individual, group or party that either affects or is affected by an organisation, policy, programme or decision.Note:
  • Stakeholders can be internal (eg employers) or external (eg customers, investors, citizens, passengers, patients etc)
  • Stakeholders become consultees when participating in a consultation exercise
Stakeholder AnalysisThe starting point of most consultation and participatory work, Stakeholder Analysis addresses the fundamental questions of: Who are the key stakeholders in the project or study being undertaken or proposed? What are the interests of these stakeholders How will they be affected by the project? How influential are the different stakeholders and which stakeholders are most important for the success of the project?Stakeholder ConferenceA dialogue method whereby a consultor, or its agent, organises an event to which is invited large numbers of stakeholders with the intention of stimulating dialogue not only with the consultor, but between the stakeholders themselves.Stakeholder ConsultationA consultation limited to a specific group of stakeholdersStakeholder DatabaseInformation retained on an ITC system pertaining to identifiable stakeholders.Stakeholder EngagementStakeholder engagement is a way of thinking about external audiences and their relationship to organisational outcomes. It implies a longer-term relationship where both parties have a mutual interest in, and ability to impact upon, the project outcomes. N.B. external stakeholders may not necessarily be outside the organisation. They can also include those internal to the organisation, but external to a unit, program or project.Stakeholder IdentificationThe process of generating a list of those affected or likely to be affected by a decision, policy or programme of action. Stakeholder Management CycleActivities required in a comprehensive approach to the management of relationships with stakeholders.Note: The cycle was first articulated by Jones in “Towards a Citizen-Centric Authority” (2004) See http://www.hewson.co.ukStakeholder ManagerAn emerging role in leading-edge organisations whereby a single individual assumes responsibility for determining and ensuring the implementation of various activities within the Stakeholder Management Cycle.Note: The Institute has prepared a Model Job Description for a Stakeholder ManagerStakeholder MappingA graphical representation of stakeholders in ways that assist consultors and others with such individuals or organisations.Stakeholder One-to-OneA dialogue method whereby the consultor organises a face-to-face meeting with a single individual or stakeholder organisation with a view to an exchange of views on issues which may include those defined an a current consultation exercise.Stakeholder PlatformsWhere key stakeholders are allowed by the consultors to set out their views in the consultation document for the information of others being consulted.Stakeholder PortalA single Internet gateway for community organisations and other stakeholders to interface with a single consultor and those who consult alongside – providing easier access to relevant information and tools to make consultation response and engagement more valuable for all concerned.Stakeholder Power AnalysisAn approach for understanding a system by identifying the key actors or stakeholders in it, and assessing their respective interests in, or influence on, the system. It is particularly useful for assisting in decision-making situations where various stakeholders have competing interests, resources are limited, and stakeholder needs must be appropriately balanced.Stakeholder ProfileInformation gathered, stored and organised in respect of an organisation’s identified stakeholders.Statement of Community InvolvementA document required by the Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 whereby every planning authority must prepare a SCI (CIS in Wales). It must be subject to public participation and have had a sustainability assessment.Stimulus materialMaterial of a visual, verbal and/or auditory nature used to communicate certain ideas to enable them to be researched, or to stimulate discussion of relevant topics.StorytellingA process of communicating through stories to get results in the modern organization that traditional abstract modes of communication can’t.Stratified Random SampleRandomly selecting from a whole population (a community, state, country, etc.) a statistically significant pool of hundreds of people and then (using interviews) choosing from that pool a smaller group who collectively reflect the diversity of the larger population according to specified criteria (demographic, opinion, location, etc.). The resulting group of 12-50 people can be viewed as a fair cross-section of the population.Stratified SampleA technique of increasing the precision of survey exercises by segmenting the target population and gathering data from an agreed quantity of respondents.Structured EngagementThe development and implementation of relationships with a view to ensuring a longer-term dialogue on matters of mutual interest. Structured TemplatesSoftware designed to emulate face-to-face methods used in facilitated workshops.Study CircleA Study Circle  is a group of 8-12 people from different backgrounds and viewpoints who meet several times to talk about an issue. In a study circle, everyone has an equal voice, and people try to understand each other’s views. They do not have to agree with each other. The idea is to share concerns and look for ways to make things better. A facilitator helps the group focus on different views and makes sure the discussion goes well. In a large-scale (or community-wide) study circle program, people all over a neighbourhood, city, county, school district, or region meet in diverse study circles over the same period of time. All of the study circles work on the same issue and seek solutions for the whole community. At the end of the round of study circles, people from all the study circles come together in a large community meeting to work together on the action ideas that came out the study circles. Study circle programs lead to a wide range of action and change efforts.SubmissionA written (or electronically transmitted) document representing views of a consultee in response to a formally published consultation document.SurveysTypes of dialogue methods used in consultation exercises and normally consisting of collecting information by asking a set of pre-formulated questions in a predetermined sequence in a structured questionnaire to a sample of individuals or organisations selected so as to be representative of a wider target population.Notes:
  • Several types of survey methodology are used both in market research and in consultation
  • Among various types of surveys used for consultation are Mail Surveys, Telephone Surveys, Face to Face Interviews and e-surveys.
Sustainability ModellingA dialogue technique by which a community can assess its present position and test the likely effects of projects. The model consists of a 3 x 3 matrix. Teams assign scores to each of the columns then discuss the results and agree an assessment.Synchronous Public EngagementOpposite of Asynchronous Public Engagement in that it does require simultaneous contributions.

T

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Text MessagingSimple polls can be taken at present by this method (e.g. Big Brother!), but potentially, it has many more serious applications to consultation.The Consultation InstituteFounded in 2003.  Seeks to promote the highest standards of public, stakeholder and employee consultation by initiating research, publications and specialist events in order to disseminate best practice and improve subsequent decision-making.Theatre & DramaOften used to explore issues of conflict without committing participants to one view or another. Widely used in education to address issues such as bullying. See also GamesTherapeutic ConsultationConsultation exercises which are perceived to provide more value for consultees or participants than for the consultor.Third SectorThe generic collective term for non-profit, charity, voluntary, non-government and campaigning organisations (NGOs) who are frequently stakeholders and the consultees in a consultation exercise.Topic GuideSee Discussion GuideTokenismSymbolic actions, which are the result of pretending to give advantage to those groups in society who are often treated unfairly, in order to give the appearance of fairnessToolkitSee Consultation ToolkitTopic ManagementActivities undertaken by Moderators to select, prioritise, monitor, guide and terminate debates on interactive forms of e-consultation (eg e-discussion forums).Town (Hall) MeetingEngagement method popular in the USA. A meeting where an entire geographic area is invited to participate in a gathering, often for a political or administrative purpose. It may be to obtain community suggestions or feedback on public policies from government officials, or to cast legally binding votes on budgets and policy.TransparencyEnsuring that all aspects of a consultation – from the information given to the reporting of the conclusions and their effects – are clearly accessible to all.Tree MapsA Tool for Structuring, Exploring and Summarising Qualitative Information. Essentially a tree map is a nested classification. It can be represented as a diagram that grows from a single trunk and ends with many leaves.

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User PanelsUser Panels are regular meetings of service users about the quality of a service or other related topics. They help to identify the concerns and priorities of service users and can lead to the early identification of problems or ideas for improvements.Usual SuspectsHas become a term of denigration for people who habitually give time and effort to what they see as their civic responsibilities

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VerificationA process of assessing compliance with a set of standards or agreed objectives.Video BoxA booth similar to a photo booth where people can go to record their views on particular topics. Originally used in the Channel 4 Right to Reply programme.VIP ChatA site on the internet where a number of users can communicate in real time (typically dedicated to one particular topic) with a named individual, for example, Ken Livingstone, or a senior council official.VisioningBringing together stakeholders for visualising a shared future for a community, with the aim of arriving at a goal acceptable to all. Also known as CommunityVisioningSee also BackcastingVital VillagesSee Parish PlansVolunteeringInformal volunteering is defined as giving unpaid help as an individual to people who are not relatives. Formal volunteering is classed as giving unpaid help through groups, clubs, organisations or their employer to benefit other people or the environment.

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WebcastsTechnique being used with increasing frequency on Local Authority websites to promote services including consultations. See also DigiTVWeightingThe process by which data is adjusted to reflect a known population profile.Wisdom Council It consists of twelve citizens selected at random, who spend two days together, first identifying issues of public interest in their surroundings and then developing proposals for improving/solving these issues. They are assisted in this by a dynamic facilitator, who helps the participants to discover what they actually want and how they can creatively develop communal solutions to seemingly insoluble problems. See also Dynamic Facilitators

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